Unas palabras en cuanto a la X enmienda.
No es correcto afirmar que una función o poder que no aparezca delegado por la Constitución al Gobierno federal corresponda a los Estados (o al pueblo). La X enmienda tiene sus raíces en los artículos del a Confederación, que señalaban que la delegación de poderes a los Estados Unidos debía ser expresa
Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled.
Sin embargo, la mención a la necesidad de una delegación "expresa", desaparece del nuevo texto constitucional. El hecho es que fue deliberadamente eliminada para permitir el ejercicio, por parte del gobierno federal, de los poderes implícitos. De aquellos que, aún sin estar delegados en el texto constitucional, fueran necesarios para segurar su aplicación o vigencia.
De hecho, la inclusión del término "expresamente" fue rechazada por dos ocasiones en el debate constituyente. Pego la reseña completa de la sesión, por su interés, además de dejar el enlace.
http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders ... ndXs6.htmlHouse of Representatives, Amendments to the Constitution (18, 21 Aug. 1789 *Annals 1:761, 767--68)
On the record.....
[18 Aug. 1789]
The 9th proposition, in the words following, was considered, "The powers not delegated by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively."
Mr. Tucker proposed to amend the proposition, by prefixing to it "all powers being derived from the people." He thought this a better place to make this assertion than the introductory clause of the Constitution, where a similar sentiment was proposed by the committee. He extended his motion also, to add the word "EXPRESSLY," so as to read "the powers not expressly delegated by this Constitution."
Mr. Madison objected to this amendment, because it was impossible to confine a Government to the exercise of express powers; there must necessarily be admitted powers by implication, unless the Constitution descended to recount every minutia. He remembered the word "EXPRESSLY" had been moved in the convention of Virginia, by the opponents to the ratification, and, after full and fair discussion, was given up by them, and the system allowed to retain its present form.
Mr. Sherman coincided with Mr. Madison in opinion, observing that corporate bodies are supposed to possess all powers incident to a corporate capacity, without being absolutely expressed.
Mr. Tucker did not view the word "EXPRESSLY" in the same light with the gentleman who opposed him; he thought every power to be expressly given that could be clearly comprehended within any accurate definition of the general power.
Mr. Tucker's motion being negatived,
Mr. Carroll proposed to add to the end of the proposition, "or to the people;" this was agreed to.
[21 Aug. 1789]
The ninth proposition Mr. Gerry proposed to amend by inserting the word "EXPRESSLY," so as to read "the powers not expressly delegated by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people." As he thought this an amendment of great importance, he requested the yeas and nays might be taken. He was supported in this by one-fifth of the members present; whereupon they were taken, and were as follows:
Yeas.--17 [Messrs. Burke, Coles, Floyd, Gerry, Grout, Hathorn, Jackson, Livermore, Page, Parker, Partridge, Van Rensselaer, Smith, (of South Carolina,) Stone, Sumter, Thatcher, and Tucker]
Nays.--32 [Messrs. Ames, Benson, Boudinot, Brown, Cadwalader, Carroll, Clymer, Fitzsimons, Foster, Gale, Gilman, Goodhue, Hartley, Heister, Lawrence, Lee, Madison, Moore, Muhlenburg, Schureman, Scott, Sedgwick, Seney, Sherman, Sylvester, Sinnickson, Smith, (of Maryland,) Sturges, Trumbull, Vining, Wadsworth, and Wynkoop]
Mr. Sherman moved to alter the last clause, so as to make it read, "the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."
This motion was adopted WITHOUT DEBATE.
(* Annals of Congress. The Debates and Proceedings in the Congress of the United States. "History of Congress." 42 vols. Washington, D.C.: Gales & Seaton, 1834--56.)
Se votó en dos ocasiones, quedando constancia del resultado: 32 en contra de incluir la necesidad de delegación expresa y 17 a favor de hacerlo. Esta votación se efectúa después de la exposición, clara y sencilla de Madison, que señala como
"es imposible confinar un Gobierno al ejercicio de poderes expresos; deben admitirse necesariamente poderes implícitos"Madison también nos informa que en la Convención de Virginia, la palabra "expresamente" fue introducida por quienes se oponían a ratificar la Constitución, y después de un completo y claro debate, fue rechazada.
No hay, por ninguna parte, la más mínima evidencia o indicio de que ninguno de los miembros de la Convención estuviera pensando en la secesión, o en que aquella enmienda autorizaba la secesión, ni nada que pueda parecerse.
Por último, también hay que señalar que ya en 1.816 el TS se pronunció sobre la interpretación de la X enmienda. A los efectos, el presidente de aquel tribunal había sido delegado de Virginia en la Convención que dio su apoyo a la ratificación de la Constitución. Como hemos visto, la Convención debatió de forma extensa y completa sobre la inclusión, o no, de la necesidad de hacer expresa la delegación de poderes.
http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/h ... 16_ZS.htmlAmong the enumerated powers, we do not find that of estab-
lishing a bank or creating a corporation. But there is no phrase in
the instrument which, like the articles of confederation, excludes
incidental or implied powers; and which requires that every thing
granted shall be expressly and minutely described. Even the 10th
amendment, which was framed for the purpose of quieting the
excessive jealousies which had been excited, omits the word
“expressly,” and declares only that the powers “not delegated to the
United States, nor prohibited to the States, are reserved to the
States or to the people;” thus leaving the question, whether the par-
ticular power which may become the subject of contest has been
delegated to the one government, or prohibited to the other, to
depend on a fair construction of the whole instrument.
Que viene a decir que la Constitución, décima enmienda incluida, no excluye el ejercicio por parte del gobierno federal de poderes implícitos o derivados.
La completa ausencia de cualquier mención a la secesión en el debate, así como el hecho evidente que el mantenimiento del territorio de un Estado es una necesidad implícita para la aplicación de las leyes de ese Estado, impiden considerar que la X enmienda autorice de forma automática la secesión.
Those heroes that shed their blood and lost their lives... You are now lying in the soil of a friendly country. Therefore rest in peace. There is no difference between the Johnnies and the Mehmets to us where they lie side by side now here in this country of ours...